****** Terrestrial Analogsof Space ExplorationHuman and Habitation Systems ****** =============================================================================== Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company Contract NAS9-17900 Job Order K4-G13 Prepared by: Paul D. Campbell, Principal Engineer Man-Systems Department Approved by: J. D. Harris, Operations Manager Man-Systems Department For: Man-Systems Division National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas January 1992 LESC-29684 =============================================================================== ***** Preface ***** This document was produced by the Human and Habitation Systems Team at the NASA Johnson Space Center. It presents the results of analysis of terrestrial analogs for human missions to the moon and to Mars. The document contains preliminary information on the Space Exploration Initiative terrestrial analog program gathered from a variety of sources. It does not represent the official definition of any part of that program, but instead is a technical report on selected potential analog environments, missions, and systems. Further information on the study may be requested from Jeri Brown, Division Manager for Lunar/Mars Exploration, NASA/JSC Man-Systems Division, (713) 483- 6036. ***** 1.0 Study Background and Summary ***** The Committee on the Future of the U. S. Space Program recommended in December 1990 a Mission from Planet Earth focusing on the exploration of space, with a long-term goal of human exploration of Mars (reference 1). The Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) currently includes studies of long-term human habitation of the Earth's moon and human missions to the planet Mars. The environments for these missions, combined with the anticipated mission durations, are beyond the scope of previous human experience. In planning the SEI, the concept of terrestrial missions which in some ways simulate Lunar and Mars missions has been proposed as one method to increase knowledge about long-term human and machine operations in harsh environments. These analog missions and their associated facilities and systems can be viewed as a risk management technique for the SEI program by yielding early information to support the planning of SEI missions and the development of the associated space systems. **** 1.1 Space Exploration Initiative **** In May 1991, a study of potential SEI program architectures was completed by the Synthesis Group. The resulting report describes several alternative plans for returning to the moon and exploring Mars (reference 2). The NASA Headquarters Office of Exploration and the Lunar and Mars Exploration Program Office (LMEPO) at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) are utilizing the Synthesis Group report as a guide in the planning of SEI programs and missions. Orbital Node, Space Transportation, and Planet Surface integration agents within NASA are performing systems engineering and integration analyses which support SEI mission studies. As the candidate space flight missions become more clearly defined over the next one to two years, they can also provide the context for the planning of terrestrial analog missions. **** 1.2 Study Summary **** A group of scientific and engineering personnel has been formed at JSC to concentrate on the human aspects of SEI missions and systems. The Human and Habitation Systems (H&HS) team brings together researchers, technologists, systems engineers, integrators, and managers in performing work which will enable long term human presence on the moon and Mars. The H&HS team's efforts are applicable to the development of terrestrial analogs which simulate Lunar and Mars habitats. In light of this fact, a study of terrestrial analogs was performed to apply H&HS knowledge and skills to the problem of defining potential analog habitation systems. The intent of the study is to systematically examine a range of issues associated with terrestrial analog habitation and to separate those issues to the point that useful conclusions can be drawn. This was accomplished by starting with a broad range of potential analog missions and environments, then focusing on one specific mission-environment combination as the context for habitation operations and systems analysis. Section 2.0 of this document describes the SEI analog program as it currently exists and details potential analog mission objectives and terrestrial environments. Section 3.0 is specific to the human and habitation aspects of terrestrial analogs, and describes potential requirements, concepts, test opportunities, and benefits related to a specific analog mission and environment. ***** 2.0 Analog Program ***** The use of analogs to develop knowledge prior to SEI space flight missions can be viewed as a program risk management technique. A series of analogs may be appropriate to build up mission-related knowledge in a systematic way and to achieve early milestones in the SEI development process. Early analogs should in general be less resource-intensive than later analogs to maximize cost- benefit performance. Each succeeding analog in a series merits additional investment in order to achieve a higher level of mission fidelity and risk reduction. Earliest SEI analogs could be implemented at low cost in existing terrestrial facilities such as NASA human-rated test facilities, sub-sea laboratories, or polar camps. New terrestrial facilities, specifically designed for SEI, would then be appropriate to increase the analog mission fidelity. Low Earth orbit facilities, such as the Space Station Freedom, would provide even more realism along some space flight parameters such as reduced gravity and radiation exposure. A Lunar outpost is seen as the ultimate analog to a Mars mission, but is expected to cost much more than any of the other methods described here. Figure 2.0-1 illustrates the concept of a phased set of analog missions which build from early, low fidelity analogs to later, high fidelity analogs. This study focuses on the phase labeled "New Terrestrial Analogs", which should begin development in the near term in order to provide benefits for initial Lunar human missions. In every analog, an appropriate mix of systems testing, human research, and mission operations simulation is necessary to achieve early SEI milestones, both technical and strategic. The Synthesis Group report (reference 2) recommends the use of Lunar missions over terrestrial analogs to simulate a Mars mission. Separately, it describes needs for Earth-based preflight crew training in high fidelity simulators, geology training at appropriate locations on Earth, new ground facilities including a life support test facility, and life sciences research into human factors including psychosocial issues and habitat design, but it does not recommend the use of terrestrial analogs to fulfill any of these needs. The SEI analog program currently being defined includes cooperation between the NASA and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the U.S. agency responsible for managing polar programs. A memorandum of agreement between the two agencies defines the scope of the cooperative effort (reference 3). The NASA portion of the SEI analog program is managed by NASA headquarters, with program science management by the Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA). Project management is performed by the LMEPO. Technical studies are being performed by the Planet Surface Systems Office (PSS) at JSC. The NSF Division of Polar Programs administers the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP), and as such is the lead NSF organization implementing the agreement with NASA. **** 2.1 Needs and Goals **** The Committee on the NSF Role in Polar Regions developed recommendations for NSF in reference 4. Of particular relevance to this study are the following: "Scientific needs and opportunities should determine the research conducted in both polar regions, with logistics deriving from and supporting the research rather than dictating it. "The health, safety, and environmental protection practices for polar research program, especially the U. S. Antarctic Program, should be studied and upgraded as necessary. "Basic engineering research should be conducted in the polar regions, with development of the engineering knowledge required for operation in the polar environment a specially targeted objective." The NSF has a need for new approaches to the design of human stations which can provide enhanced capabilities for the human crews and which can reduce environmental impacts created by the stations' presence. Reference 3 states: "NSF interests under this agreement are to: identify advanced technologies that offer potential short and long-term benefits to planned antarctic base improvements/initiatives, apply and test promising technologies..., optimize living/working conditions at antarctic and other polar facilities, reduce operations logistics costs through improved ... waste management systems, reduce environmental impacts of antarctic bases, advance antarctic research ... in areas of mutual interest such as ... human behavior and performance ...." NSF goals are enunciated in a joint report with NASA (reference 5): * Plan and conduct scientific and engineering research. * Enhance the ability of the USAP to support scientific research. * Minimize impact on the Antarctic environment. * Further the principles of the Antarctic Treaty. * Increase public awareness of, involvement in, and commitment to the USAP. NASA interests are also stated in reference 3: "NASA interests under this agreement are to: provide for scientific research..., realize early demonstrations of crew operations under realistic environmental and working/living conditions, demonstrate vital planetary surface and terrestrial technologies, including ... waste control/recycling ..., demonstrate environmental and other benefits of space technology, ...." NASA goals are enunciated in reference 5: * Develop and verify reliable, robust facilities and systems that can be maintained and operated with limited human involvement. * Conduct extensive human factors and technology research to develop autonomous and telerobotic systems and the tools and techniques needed to support scientific investigation. * Understand the psychological and medical aspects of remote, long- duration, and isolated human activities through significant research in simulated environments with relevant work tasks. The NASA OSSA 1991 Strategic Plan (reference 6) states: "Future human exploration activities will be supported by augmented ground- based research efforts in advanced medical care, ... closed- loop life support, and human factors. This research, much of which will involve studies within suitable analog environments, will establish a firm foundation for the planning of future human missions." **** 2.2 Current Efforts and Plans **** The SEI terrestrial analog program is currently in the definition phase; therefore, all currently available plans are anticipated to be preliminary in nature and subject to change. They are discussed here to illustrate the types of plans being developed. NSF plans include the development of a permanent scientific facility on the Antarctic polar plateau. This facility would support up to twenty personnel for scientific work in astronomy, space physics, geology, and aeronomy (reference 7). NASA's plans for analog development are partially delineated in the SEI Long- Range Plan of January 1991 (reference 8). This document defines the initiation of Antarctic studies for human support in 1992. It also defines an analog program with phase A in 1993, phase B in 1994, and phase C/D in 1995-1996. A Lunar habitat testbed for life support is defined in 1994, with a human-rated regenerative life support capability in 1996. The PSS has defined an Antarctic analog schedule as shown in Figure 2.2-1 (reference 9). This program includes analog hardware delivery to Antarctica in 1997 and completion of analog construction in 1998, with operations beginning in 1998. The PSS has also defined operations and logistics studies in 1991, a system evaluation in 1993, and continuing terrestrial analog efforts through 2005 (reference 10). Scheduling of analog projects is expected to be influenced by the overall SEI program schedule, by available resources, and by progress in technology development. Mission definition should be carried out in the near term in order to fully study analog mission objectives and issues prior to commitment of resources for analog systems development. **** 2.3 Potential Analog Missions and Environments **** Two major issues exist for the development and operation of an SEI terrestrial analog: the goals of the analog mission and the environment for analog operations. Potential analog mission objectives include human research, physical sciences research, and flight systems development (reference 5). Human research, as used in this study, encompasses all areas of health, safety, and productivity applicable to SEI crews on missions to the moon and to Mars. Some of these areas cannot be fully investigated through a terrestrial analog, but many can benefit from such a test bed. Physical sciences research includes the types of science currently being performed in extreme terrestrial environments, as well as additional research directly applicable to SEI missions. Flight systems development consists of the end-to-end effort required to define, develop, fabricate, and test the hardware and software which will support human crews on SEI space missions. This includes all the necessary ground-based technology development, advanced development, and flight systems engineering. Sections 2.3.1 describes mission concepts tailored to these three potential mission objectives. Potential environments for terrestrial analog operations include the Earth's atmosphere, seas, and land. Each of the environments offers some degree of simulation for SEI space missions. Some have more advantages than others for particular mission objectives. Terrestrial environments of potential use for an SEI analog program are discussed in section 2.3.2. Each is described in terms of characteristics which may correlate to SEI space mission environments. *** 2.3.1 Potential Missions *** A terrestrial analog, to be a viable, must provide the SEI with information which cannot be generated in other, less resource intensive ways. The scope of the analog should be judiciously defined to avoid too broad or narrow a program. A program which is overly scoped will encounter resource limits and defocusing of the analog goals. One which is too narrow will not create enough synergy to provide an adequate operational simulation. The following subsections provide additional details on potential mission objectives for SEI terrestrial analogs. It is expected that elements of each of these potential objectives will be utilized in formulating actual analog missions. They are separated here for purposes of illustration and to demonstrate the potential operational variations when one mission objective is emphasized over the others. Figure 2.3.1-1 illustrates the concept of an integrated set of mission objectives which results in more analog benefits than would isolated missions designed around each individual objective. ** 2.3.1.1 Human Research Mission Concept ** SEI missions to the moon and to Mars will place human crews in hostile environments in transit to and from the planets, in orbit around them, and on their surfaces. The environments will include reduced gravity, increased radiation, altered daylight cycles, extreme temperatures, and unbreathable atmospheres. The hostility of these mission environments will induce a large degree of confinement of SEI crewmembers to the interior of their habitable elements. Crewmembers will also be aware of their isolation from the Earth and of the risks involved in their missions. The extreme physical and psychological conditions will result in some changes in crew physiological and biobehavioral patterns. A terrestrial analog which simulates some of the conditions expected in SEI missions can provide researchers with information on changes to be anticipated in human crewmembers during missions to the moon and Mars. Emphasis would be on conditions which affect human health, behavior, and performance. An analog environment for this mission might involve extremes of temperature, pressure, gravity, daylight/darkness, or other physical factors, resulting in crewmember perceptions of isolation, confinement, deprivation, and risk; changes in physical or cognitive task performance; and/or changes in the performance of human body systems. To produce valid human research data, the analog mission crewmembers must be involved in work which is professionally relevant to them and they must perceive the rewards of the mission to be commensurate with the personal costs to them (reference 11). Human research parameters of interest in this mission (references 12, 13, 14) include: * size of crew * duration of crew stay * crew rotation technique * operational tasks and crew interfaces * free time * perceived risk * psychological isolation * physical confinement * physiological adaptation * crewmember task competence and skills * personal motivation * crewmember emotional stability * social compatibility * crew composition * crew social organization * level of crew autonomy from outside control * interpersonal distance and crowding * crewmember physical discomfort * degree of deprivation. A concept for the human research mission is summarized in the following paragraphs. The analog mission length and crew size are based on biobehavioral research considerations to simulate an initial Mars mission of up to three years. The analog environment is also selected based principally on biobehavioral considerations, with high levels of environmental hostility, isolation, confinement, and perceived risk as some of the selection criteria. The analog facility's fidelity to flight systems is not high, but analog systems are designed to enhance crew health, safety, and productivity. The habitat interior is of high enough quality that it simulates essential characteristics of a space mission habitat. It includes all functions necessary to support humans for durations up to three years, with resupply of consumables during that period. The analog crewmembers receive a degree of training prior to their mission similar to that of space flight crews. They are provided with satellite, aerial, and surface photography of the analog site and region, but they have no trip to the site prior to their mission. The crew consists of a mix of military pilots with engineering degrees, medical doctors, psychologists, and physical scientists. Married couples are utilized when possible. Crew operations emphasize testing and measurement of physiological and psychological performance variables. Mission operations are mainly internal to the habitable elements, but external operations are used to generate human performance data and to operate and maintain the analog facility. Remote communications with mission control personnel, flight surgeons, and family members are frequent and include two-way voice, text, graphics, and video. Time delays are added to communications to simulate the signal lag times on a mission to Mars. ** 2.3.1.2 Physical Sciences Mission Concept ** A major goal of the SEI is development of scientific knowledge about the physical characteristics of the solar system. This goal could also be used as the foundation for a terrestrial analog mission. The human crew could develop skills in geological, astronomical, and atmospheric research which could then be utilized during a space mission. A concept for the physical sciences mission is summarized in the following paragraphs. The analog mission length and crew size are based on physical science considerations. The analog environment is also selected based on physical science considerations, with a high level of science opportunity and a high degree of similarity to planet surfaces as important selection criteria. The analog facility fidelity to flight systems is not high, and analog systems are designed to ensure acceptable levels of crew health, safety, and productivity. The analog includes all functions necessary to support a crew for durations up to one year, with resupply of consumables during that period. The analog includes a dedicated physical sciences laboratory for analysis and curation of geological samples. The analog crew consists of engineers, medical doctors, and physical scientists. Crew operations emphasize surface exploration and sampling, experiment package deployment and monitoring, and laboratory analysis. Remote communications with mission control personnel, flight surgeons, and family members are only as frequent as necessary to ensure crew safety and to exchange scientific information with investigators at mission control. ** 2.3.1.3 Systems Development Mission Concept ** SEI space systems must be more reliable and more efficient in their use of resources than any previously flown in order to make long duration human planetary missions possible. Management of the risks involved in the development and operations of these systems could be the focus of a terrestrial analog mission. This mission would emphasize the evaluation of technologies for SEI space flight systems. A concept for the systems development mission is summarized in the following paragraphs. The analog mission length and crew size are based on systems testing considerations. The analog environment is selected based on systems life testing considerations, with high levels of environmental hostility and logistics difficulty as important selection criteria. The analog facility fidelity to flight systems is high in order to test the technologies and the designs of prototype SEI space systems for their functionality, reliability, and maintainability. The habitat includes all functions necessary to support humans for durations up to three years, with resupply of consumables during that period. The habitat also has the capability for human-tended operations in which critical habitat functions are maintained between human visits. The analog crewmembers receive flight-like training prior to their Antarctic mission, especially in the maintenance of the analog systems. The crew consists of a mix of engineers and medical doctors. Crew operations emphasize testing and maintenance of analog systems. External operations on the surface terrain are frequent in order to operate and maintain the analog facility. Remote communications with mission control are only as frequent as necessary to exchange information on systems performance and crew health. Time delays are added to communications to simulate the signal lag times on a mission to Mars. *** 2.3.2 Potential Environments *** The following subsections describe some Earth environments which could be useful for SEI analog missions. The emphasis here is on the environmental conditions and not on particular habitation facilities which already exist in each of the environments. Facilities and infrastructure in any terrestrial environment are subject to change over time, but the environments remain relatively constant factors in the design of analog missions. It is assumed that NASA will produce an analog facility tailored to its own purposes which could be designed for any of the following environments. It is also assumed that NASA will make maximum use of existing transportation and remote communications infrastructure where possible. It is accepted that all terrestrial environments differ from SEI mission environments in significant ways, such as gravity and ionizing radiation levels. Each potential analog environment is described in terms of the following characteristics which may vary from one to another and which may affect its appropriateness as a site for an SEI analog facility: * Isolation: degree of physical removal from humans who are not part of the analog mission crew * Hostility: the degree of difference of the ambient environmental conditions from a temperate, mid-latitude, Earth sea-level climate * Confinement: degree to which the outside environment induces the analog crewmembers to remain inside their habitat * Risk: relative probability of an accident, fault, or natural event which would adversely affect the crew or the mission * Prior knowledge: the degree to which information on the environment is available to crewmembers prior to their mission * Natural lighting: the presence of a day/night cycle and its length relative to mid-latitude Earth locations * Logistics difficulty: a relative measure of the resources required to emplace and resupply the analog facility (assuming existing transportation means) * Remote communications: capability to exchange information with mission control or other remote humans (assuming existing communications means) * Science opportunity: the degree to which the environment allows science activities and the similarity of those activities to anticipated SEI science * Similarity to planet surface: degree to which the terrestrial surface resembles Lunar and/or Mars surfaces in terrain, mineralogy, and soil mechanics * Sensitivity: relative susceptibility of the environment to long-term disruption by human activities Terrestrial environments may be scored using these characteristics, based on their similarity to an SEI mission environment, and the results may be weighted and combined into an overall environmental simulation score to illustrate each environment's appropriateness as a potential analog site. This overall score could then be used in the selection process for locating a terrestrial analog. This selection process would doubtless include many other factors such as cost and international considerations. No attempt is made here to perform this overall scoring or selection because it is deemed to be beyond the scope of this initial study. ** 2.3.2.1 Sea Surface ** Isolation: moderate to very high, depending on location Hostility: high, due to storms, with polar seas very high due to temperatures Confinement: moderate in temperate seas if diving available; high in polar seas Risk: high to very high, based on storms and remoteness from medical care Prior knowledge: high for general characteristics, moderate for prevailing winds and ocean currents, low for specific events such as storms Natural lighting: ranges from equatorial day/night cycle to North Polar continuous summer light and continuous winter darkness, depending on the sea surface location Logistics difficulty: low to high depending on sea surface location and whether the analog is fixed or mobile; logistics via aircraft is constrained by the distance to the nearest airport and the need for a water landing or onboard landing pad, and logistics by ship may be constrained by distance to the nearest port Remote communications: potentially real-time communications via satellite links, but lack of such capability may cause less overall communications capability than that anticipated for SEI missions (less reliable, less frequent communications); mobile analogs such as ships may have periods of very low communications capabilities when not in range of a continuous satellite link Science opportunity: high for studying the ocean and atmosphere, but would not be similar to Lunar or Mars science in most ways Similarity to planet surface: very low except in cases of sea pack ice such as at the North Pole which could allow crew surface traverses Sensitivity: relatively low for overboard dumping of gaseous and liquid wastes, moderate for dumping of solid wastes ** 2.3.2.2 Sub-Sea ** Isolation: ranges from low to high, depending on location, with areas far from shore and at greatest depths providing highest isolation Hostility: very high, as crew cannot survive outside for more than a few minutes without breathing devices and/or thermal suits Confinement: ranges from low to high, depending on location and depth, with deep, cold environments producing highest confinement Risk: moderate risk in habitat, high risk outside due to communication, visibility, currents, temperatures, sea life, and ocean floor features; bends risk must be managed when decompressing Prior knowledge: high for general conditions, but low for details such as sea bottom features which are site-specific and may change over time Natural lighting: at shallow depths the local day/night cycle will be apparent, but at deep locations no natural lighting will exist Logistics difficulty: moderate to high, depending on location and depth, with remote, deep sites producing high logistics difficulty, especially for resupply of consumables which must remain dry Remote communications: potentially real-time communications via satellite links, but lack of such capability may cause less overall communications capability than that anticipated for SEI missions (less reliable, less frequent communications) Science opportunity: high for biological and physical science as well as human research, but ocean-specific science is not highly analogous to Lunar/Mars missions Similarity to planet surface: low for sea-bottom characteristics, but partial gravity simulation by weighted buoyancy may be possible Sensitivity: moderate to high, based on potential impacts to bottom life such as coral reefs ** 2.3.2.3 Land Surface ** The land surface in general provides a great variety of terrains. Reference 15 lists seven terrain types which are in some degree common to Earth and Mars. The following subsections describe generic land surface environments which may be of use in locating analog facilities and conducting analog missions. ** 2.3.2.3.1 Existing NASA Installation Sites ** Isolation: very low due to siting at an existing work location Hostility: low, based on sites of current NASA installations Confinement: low if based only on the environment as a driver, must be enforced by crew procedures if it is desirable to study high degrees of confinement Risk: low due to climate and proximity of extensive medical facilities Prior knowledge: very high, unless surface features are intentionally changed to reduce the crew's prior knowledge of them Natural lighting: mid-latitude day/night cycle Logistics difficulty: low due to proximity to sources of analog elements and resupply consumables and high level of existing transportation infrastructure Remote communications: reliable and frequent communication to mission controlvia existing NASA telecommunications network Science opportunity: low for surface science, and low for human research other than long-term self-imposed confinement Similarity to planet surface: low at existing sites, but surface simulator could be prepared as part of the analog ("rock pile") Sensitivity: low, based on much larger amounts of human activity already occurring at the site ** 2.3.2.3.2 Desert ** Isolation: low to high, dependent on remoteness from populated areas Hostility: low to moderate depending on location and season, based on temperatures and storms Confinement: low to moderate depending on location and season Risk: low to moderate based on lack of significant environmental hazards Prior knowledge: high for general characteristics; low to high for site- specific features, depending on whether crewmembers have detailed information before the mission Natural lighting: mid-latitude day/night cycle Logistics difficulty: low to moderate, depending on existing land transportation infrastructure Remote communications: possibly more reliable and frequent than that of SEI missions based on existing geostationary satellite links Science opportunity: moderate to very high for surface geology, moderate for human research in isolation and confinement Similarity to planet surface: moderate to high for Mars, low to moderate for moon Sensitivity: moderate, based on potential impacts to desert geology and biology ** 2.3.2.3.3 Uninhabited Island ** Isolation: high, but aircraft and/or ships may be visible from many islands Hostility: low to high, depending on latitude and season Confinement: low based on environment, except high in polar regions Risk: low to moderate, depending on the extent of off-shore diving performed and proximity to inhabited areas with medical facilities Prior knowledge: low to high, depending on whether crewmembers have been to the site and/or been given photographic information before the mission Natural lighting: equatorial to polar conditions Logistics difficulty: moderate to high, depending on proximity of airfields and ports and terrain of island Remote communications: low to high reliability and frequency, depending on latitude and longitude Science opportunity: high for biology and ocean studies, but may be low for geology and human confinement studies Similarity to planet surface: low to high, depending on island, with recently volcanic islands providing higher similarity to Mars surface Sensitivity: high to very high, depending on the ecology of the selected island ** 2.3.2.3.4 High Mountain ** Isolation: moderate to high, depending on remoteness and elevation of analog site Hostility: moderate to high, depending on elevation, with factors being hypoxic atmosphere, extreme low temperatures, high winds, and snow Confinement: moderate to high, with low temperatures and hypoxic conditions resulting in a high degree of confinement, depending on the outdoor clothing and portable oxygen supplies provided Risk: moderate to high, based on possibility of weather which could prevent crew emergency evacuation as well as potential exposure to ambient conditions Prior knowledge: high to low, depending on whether crewmembers have been to the site and/or been given photographic information before the mission Natural lighting: near-equatorial to near-polar lighting conditions, depending on analog site, cloudy to clear conditions depending on location and elevation Logistics difficulty: high to very high, depending on location, elevation, slope, and terrain Remote communications: low to high reliability and frequency, with higher reliability and frequency based on use of geostationary satellite links Science opportunity: moderate to high for geology, high for human research, moderate to high for astronomy or microbiology Similarity to planet surface: low to high, depending on surface cover of ice and snow versus rocky surface and depending on site slopes versus planet surface site slopes Sensitivity: moderate to high, depending on the ecology of the selected site ** 2.3.2.3.5 Polar Region ** ** 2.3.2.3.5.1 Arctic ** Isolation: moderate to very high, depending on location Hostility: moderate to very high, depending on temperature, weather, and surface cover Confinement: moderate to very high, depending on weather and season Risk: moderate to high, based on possibility that crew medical evacuation could be delayed depending on site and weather Prior knowledge: high to low, depending on whether crewmembers have been to the site and/or been given photographic information before the mission Natural lighting: several months of continuous light in summer, several months of continuous darkness in winter, and day/night cycles during spring and fall Logistics difficulty: moderate to high, depending on location and surface cover and degree of use of existing infrastructure Remote communications: low to moderate, depending on the availability of periodic links through high orbit inclination satellites and/or the ability to transmit line-of-sight to geostationary satellites Science opportunity: moderate for geology, moderate to high for oceanography and ocean biology, low for astronomy Similarity to planet surface: low to moderate, depending on site surface cover of ice or bare ground; land sites are not available near the North Pole, the farthest north land site being TBD degrees latitude Sensitivity: high, based on fragile ecology and long recovery times ** 2.3.2.3.5.2 Antarctic ** Two Antarctic environments, the dry valley and polar plateau terrains, were evaluated. ** 2.3.2.3.5.2.1 Dry Valley ** Isolation: moderate, based on being less than 100 miles from McMurdo but accessible only by helicopter Hostility: moderate to high, based on low temperatures and high winds Confinement: moderate to high, depending on seasonal temperatures and winds Risk: moderate to high, based on availability of emergency evacuation to McMurdo in summer but not in winter Prior knowledge: moderate to high, depending on whether crewmembers have been to the site and/or been given photographic information before the mission Natural lighting: continuous light in austral summer, continuous darkness in austral winter, with light/dark cycles in spring and fall Logistics difficulty: moderate, based on helicopter-only access from McMurdo Remote communications: moderate reliability and availability, based on use of terrestrial radio links and/or links through high orbit inclination satellites Science opportunity: high for geology, high for microbiology in lakes, moderate for human research, low to moderate for astronomy, based on winds and dust Similarity to planet surface: high for Mars surface, moderate for Lunar surface Sensitivity: high, based on fragile ecology and long recovery times ** 2.3.2.3.5.2.2 Polar Plateau ** Isolation: high, based on distances from McMurdo and South Pole station Hostility: high, based on low temperatures and hypoxic atmosphere Confinement: high to very high, based on hostility and lighting conditions, depending on season Risk: high, based on time required to perform emergency medical evacuation and on potential for crew exposure to ambient conditions Prior knowledge: high on general characteristics, low on specific features and weather events Natural lighting: continuous light in austral summer, continuous darkness in austral winter, with light/dark cycles in spring and fall Logistics difficulty: moderate to high, based on use of sea transport to McMurdo and air transport from McMurdo to the polar plateau during summer but not during winter Remote communications: moderate reliability and availability, based on use of terrestrial radio links and/or links through high orbit inclination satellites Science opportunity: high for human research, low for geology, high for astronomy, high for atmospheric research Similarity to planet surface: low, based on ice and snow cover Sensitivity: high to very high, due to low wind velocities and low precipitation amounts ** 2.3.2.4 Underground ** Isolation: moderate to very high, depending on implementation and location Hostility: low to moderate, based on lack of weather effects and low but constant temperature Confinement: high to very high, dependent on implementation in a large cavern or in a small excavation Risk: low, assuming medical evacuation is readily available Prior knowledge: high to low, depending on whether crewmembers have been to the site and/or been given information before the mission, natural caverns will have more unknowns than man-made excavations Natural lighting: none, except for artificial lighting Logistics difficulty: low to moderate, based on short distance from surface Remote communications: high reliability and continuous link availability Science opportunity: moderate to high for subsurface geology, high for human research, none for astronomy or surface exploration Similarity to planet surface: low to moderate, if lava tubes are considered Sensitivity: low if man-made excavation, potentially high if natural cavern due to very long recovery time ** 2.3.2.5 Atmosphere ** Isolation: moderate to high, depending on implementation and location Hostility: moderate to very high, based on weather effects and altitude effects Confinement: high to very high, depending on altitude Risk: moderate to high, depending on location and fixed or mobile operations Prior knowledge: high for general characteristics, but low for specific events such as atmospheric storms which are not predictable further than a few days in advance Natural lighting: cyclic based on local day/night period Logistics difficulty: moderate to very high, depending on fixed or mobile operations Remote communications: moderate to high availability, depending on location Science opportunity: high for atmospheric science, moderate to high for astronomy, very low for surface geology Similarity to planet surface: very low Sensitivity: low ***** 3.0 Analog Habitation ***** The following subsections describe the scope of analog habitation systems and a specific concept for habitation systems supporting a space exploration analog mission in the Antarctic polar plateau environment. **** 3.1 Scope of Habitation Systems **** The model used as the basis for this study consists of human, mission, environment, and habitation systems elements. Figure 3.1-1 illustrates this model and describes some of the roles fulfilled by the habitation systems. As defined here, habitation systems are considered to include all hardware, software, consumables, and procedures which directly support the analog crew and/or which are contained inside a habitable volume. Habitable volumes may include crew living areas, workshops, laboratories, plant growth chambers, and mobile vehicular crew cabs. Model: Habitation systems provide compatibility between humans, missions, and environments. * The habitation systems allow humans to perform to the mission requirements * The habitation systems support human needs which are not supported by the environments * The habitation systems protect the human against harmful aspects of the environments * The habitation systems protect the environments against harm from the humans [Images/EIC030-1.GIF]Figure 3.1-1 Human-Mission-Environment-Habitation Systems Model **** 3.2 Antarctic Analog Habitation for the Polar Plateau **** The analog concept which is used as the basis for section 3.2 and all its subsections is a simulated SEI mission performed in the Antarctic polar plateau environment. Following is a list of assumptions made to provide the context for this analog concept: * The degrees of isolation and confinement are high. Remote communications may be limited by the periodic availability of satellite links. Surface operations, including crew traverses and science activities are possible, though the surface terrain does not resemble Lunar or Mars terrain. The winter-over period extends for at least eight months and includes several months of continuous darkness. The high altitude of the site drives a need for control of the habitat atmosphere to prevent crew hypoxia. Transportation to and from the site is assumed to be by aircraft, similar to that at the South Pole Station. No assumption is made as to the availability of unpressurized surface rovers for local transportation, but it is assumed that a pressurized rover is not part of the analog. Suits are worn by crewmembers outside the habitat which protect them against the environment, allow voice communication with the habitat and with each other, and provide a respirable atmosphere with approximately sea-level equivalent oxygen pressure. The analog facility power generation capability is independent of season and time of day and presents no exceptional problems for crew maintenance. *** 3.2.1 Strawman Mission Definition *** ** 3.2.1.1 Mission Requirements ** The analog mission is assumed to include the following top-level requirements: * A human crew shall be supported at the Antarctic polar plateau site for long- duration research. Crews of up to six individuals shall be accommodated for periods up to three years. Operations shall be performed to simulate Lunar and Mars mission activities and crew performance. Human research to be performed shall include measurements of physiological, biobehavioral, and productivity parameters and factors affecting them. Physical science research shall include atmospheric and meteorological observations, astronomy, and collection of surface and subsurface samples. Systems development and testing shall include habitat emplacement and construction, logistics and maintenance, power generation, communications, life support, health care, and crew accommodations equipment. Transportation to and from the analog site for hardware, consumables, and personnel shall be provided by existing Antarctic aircraft capabilities. Medical evacuation of analog crewmembers to McMurdo Station shall be provided within TBD hours of communication of the need. Evacuation of all personnel at the analog site to the South Pole Station shall be provided within TBD hours of communication of the need. Remote communication between the analog site and the South Pole Station, other Antarctic stations, and the continental United States shall be provided. Environmental impacts of the analog mission shall be minimized by containing mission byproducts and wastes and periodically removing them from the analog site. ** 3.2.1.2 Environmental Parameters ** The Antarctic polar plateau site experiences extreme environmental conditions of lighting, temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric pressure. The analog habitation systems must be designed to withstand the site environment and to protect the analog crew from hazardous environmental effects. It must also protect the environment against detrimental effects of human habitation. Table 3.2.1.2-1 defines the ranges of environmental conditions to be imposed as design requirements on the analog systems (reference 16). The low wind speed lengthens to several days the time required for the dispersion of aircraft exhaust products, the high altitude presents hypoxia concerns for personnel, and the dry air increases human body moisture loss (reference 7). Preliminary environment-related requirements on the habitation systems are: * Analog systems shall be designed to operate over their required lifetimes in the polar plateau environment. Analog systems shall be designed to be restarted after reaching equilibrium with the polar plateau environmental conditions. Analog systems shall minimize impacts to the mission environments. Design goals include: Analog systems should withstand as wide a range of environmental conditions as possible without undue impacts on cost, schedule, or functional performance. _______Table_3.2.1.2-1_Antarctic_Polar_Plateau_Analog_Site_Environment_______ |Parameter_____________________________________|Yearly_Range_of_Values________| |Position (latitude, longitude) |82 degrees south, 85 degrees | |______________________________________________|east__________________________| |Range from McMurdo |approximately 1800 km (1100 | |______________________________________________|miles)________________________| |Altitude______________________________________|3993_meters_(13,100_feet)_____| |Atmospheric_pressure__________________________|As_low_as_55_kPa_(8_psia)_____| |Wind speed |Average_______________|3.0_m/sec_(6.7_mi/hr)_________| |_______________________|Maximum_for_design____|TBD___________________________| |Air-borne_particulates________________________|TBD___________________________| |Precipitation_________________________________|1-5_cm/yr_(0.39-1.96_in/yr)___| |Radiation |Solar_________________|TBD___________________________| |_______________________|Cosmic________________|TBD___________________________| | |Summer________________|Continuous_light_for_130_days_| | |Winter |Continuous darkness for 120 | |Sunlight |______________________|days__________________________| | |Spring/Fall |Transition over approximately | |_______________________|______________________|60_days_______________________| | |Maximum_______________|TBD___________________________| |Air temperature |Minimum_______________|-90_degrees_C_(-130_degrees_F)| |_______________________|Average_______________|TBD___________________________| |Relative_humidity_____________________________|TBD___________________________| | |Surface_______________|TBD___________________________| |Ground temperature |10_cm_subsurface______|TBD___________________________| |_______________________|1_m_subsurface________|TBD___________________________| |Surface characteristics|Density_______________|TBD___________________________| |_______________________|Penetration_resistance|TBD___________________________| |Ice_sheet_motion______________________________|TBD_m/yr,_TBD_direction_______| |Seismic Events |Magnitude_____________|TBD___________________________| |_______________________|Frequency_____________|TBD___________________________| *** 3.2.2 Preliminary Systems Definitions *** Figure 3.2.2-1 illustrates the functional breakdown which was developed for the purposes of this study and shows the habitat as one portion of the overall analog system. Figure 3.2.2-2 shows the breakdown of the habitat into subsystems. The following subsections define potential requirements, concepts, technologies, test opportunities, and terrestrial benefits related to each of the habitat subsystems. ** 3.2.2.1 Transport ** Transport, as defined here, includes the following functions: * Movement of analog elements from points of origination to the analog site * Movement of logistics elements to and from the analog site * Movement of personnel to and from the analog site. Transport of analog elements from their acceptance and checkout sites, assumed to be in the continental United States, to Antarctica may be via air, surface, or a combination of the two methods. Standardized dimensions for packages of analog equipment will be useful in any of these transport modes. Currently, most United States surface cargo transported to Antarctica by ship is offloaded at McMurdo Station (77 degrees south, 166 degrees east). Air transport to the continent is by cargo aircraft to the McMurdo vicinity. Wheeled aircraft are landed on the Ross Sea ice in the austral spring (October- November), until the sea ice runway becomes unusable. Ski-equipped aircraft are then landed at Williams Field on the Ross ice shelf during December-February (references 17 and 18). Most flight operations are suspended for the winter- over period from late February until October. The existing transportation infrastructure inside Antarctica provides a capability for the movement of modular systems and equipment. The LC-130 transport is used as the primary aircraft for movement of personnel, equipment, and supplies to the interior of the Antarctic continent, including the South Pole Station and remote field camps. Flights between McMurdo and South Pole Station occur from late October through early February (reference 18). The United States C-141 and C-5 aircraft are also flown to Antarctica, but may not be landable at the selected polar plateau site due to their requirements for permanently bare "blue ice" conditions (reference 19). The advantages of either of these aircraft are their larger payload mass and volume capacities, which could allow larger preintegrated habitat elements to be emplaced. Reference 20 describes the cargo loading and transport characteristics of all three of these candidate heavy lift aircraft. Air drop of cargo from either of these aircraft is a potential method of delivery of large cargo to sites without hard surface runways. UH-1N helicopters are used inside Antarctica to transport personnel and small equipment. Their primary uses are the movement of summer science researchers to small remote campsites near McMurdo and the evacuation of personnel to McMurdo in emergencies. The altitude and range limitations of the UH-1N rule it out for support of a polar plateau analog. Loading and unloading of transport aircraft cargo at the analog site may require a propulsive capability, either in the cargo itself, or in a surface vehicle. If the C-141 or C-5 were landed at a "blue ice" location, overland transport of analog elements by tractor-sledge train could be used to move them to the analog site. Table 3.2.2.1-1 describes some of the characteristics of the LC-130, C-141, and C-5 aircraft and their payload capabilities. It is expected that the LC-130 will be the favored means of transport of analog habitat hardware for both hardware and personnel. Its current operational capability to the South Pole Station would also allow service to the polar plateau site from McMurdo, a distance of approximately 1800 km (1100 miles). Historically, the U. S. Plateau Station elements were transported in a period of three weeks in 1965 using LC-130 transports. This involved moving four prefabricated living units, each weighing 10400 kg (23,000 lbs), two heavy tracked vehicles, fuel storage bladders, and 189,000 liters (50,000 gal) of diesel fuel (reference 21). The Plateau Station was at 3624 m (11,890 ft) altitude, 79 degrees south latitude, 40 degrees east longitude. The Plateau Station location and transportation mode are similar to those of the analog mission concept defined in this study. As a more recent example of an extensive transport project, USAP task S-272, Long Duration Ballooning Test Flight in Antarctica, was scheduled for 1990-1991 and required the transport of 66,000 kg (145,000 lb) of cargo to and from the Antarctic continent. Both ship and air transport to McMurdo were planned for this project (reference 22). Preliminary transport-related requirements on the analog habitation systems are: * All systems and equipment to be transported to or from the analog site shall be designed for transport by cargo ship and by the LC-130 aircraft. Self-propelled elements shall be capable of unloading from the aircraft under their own power. Non-self propelled elements shall be capable of removal from or placement in the LC-130 with the use of surface support vehicles. Design goals are: * Minimize analog habitat mass and volume to reduce transportation trips to the analog site to complete the habitat. Figure 3.2.2.1-1 illustrates the C-130H aircraft cargo compartment which is anticipated to be similar to that of the LC-130. Figure 3.2.2.1-2 depicts the cargo handling system in the floor of the compartment. Figure 3.2.2.1-3 shows the cargo loading door and ramp in open positions. All three of these figures are taken from reference 20. Figure 3.2.2.1-4 illustrates a conceptual method of transport for preintegrated habitable elements to the Antarctic polar plateau site by LC-130 or larger aircraft. Habitat technology candidates for this concept are available within the current state of engineering practice. Reference 23 describes the U. S. Air Force's Airborne Battlefield Command Control Center, a preintegrated habitable module which fits inside the EC-130E aircraft and is transported in a similar fashion to the illustrated concept. ___Table_3.2.2.1-1_Transport_Aircraft_Used_in_the_U.S._Antarctic_Program___ |Aircraft|Cargo Mass |Range (km)*|Cargo Size |Landing |Runway (m)**| |Type____|(kg)_________|___________|(m)__________|Surfaces_____|____________| |C-130: |Up to 17,600 |3791 |2.74H x 3.04W|snow/ice/hard|1091 | |________|_____________|___________|x_12.5L______|_____________|____________| |C-141: |Up to 38,500 |TBD |2.74H x 3.04W|bare ice/hard|TBD | |________|_____________|___________|x_27.7L______|_____________|____________| | | | |2.90H x 5.79W| | | |C-5: |Up to 132,000|5525 |x 37.2L(or |bare ice/hard|2530 | | | | |4.10H x | | | |________|_____________|___________|3.96W)_______|_____________|____________| * Range with maximum cargo mass. ** Runway length at sea level. ** 3.2.2.2 Construction ** Construction, as defined here, includes the following functions: * Surface excavation and modification * Positioning and assembly of analog elements * Deployment of analog element subsystems and appendages * Interior outfitting and pre-habitation verification. SEI planet surface habitat and space transportation crew module concepts have been proposed which range from fully preintegrated and configured prior to the mission to those which must be fully constructed during the mission. It is desirable to design analog elements which are similar to Lunar/Mars flight elements in their degree of preintegration in order to partially simulate emplacement and construction operations expected on planetary surfaces. It is expected that analog habitation element quality and reliability will be optimized by preintegration of much of the component hardware prior to transport to the analog mission site. The conditions present at the polar plateau site create the need to minimize the time and risks required for on- site construction of the analog elements. Preintegration of analog hardware elements to some extent is therefore necessary to reduce construction risks. Ocean-going ships and the LC-130 aircraft provide the necessary capabilities to deliver preintegrated analog elements to the polar plateau site. These capabilities should be exploited to the advantage of the analog program to minimize construction and to simulate planetary surface habitat emplacement operations. Methods of surface propulsion will be required to emplace analog elements at the construction site. It is assumed that vehicles will be available to move and position large elements in order to build up the complete habitation system. Historically, tracked surface vehicles, such as the Snocat and the Peter Snow Miller, have been used to move heavy equipment and to excavate snow (reference 21). A surface vehicle for operation at the altitude of the polar plateau site may require development in terms of its propulsive power system. Deployment of appendages from preintegrated elements provides an effective method of packaging and construction for large elements such as habitats. Methods of deployment which minimize the need for specialized support equipment and tools and which minimize the risk to successful completion of the construction mission are desirable. Preliminary requirements for habitable element constructability are: * Analog habitation systems elements shall be constructible using surface support vehicles, equipment, and personnel. Each analog habitat element shall be emplaced, activated, and verified operational within TBD hours after transport aircraft landing at the analog site. Design goals for constructability are: * Minimize the required amount of surface preparation. Minimize the number of separate elements which must be assembled. Minimize the number of support personnel and man-hours required for construction. Standardize interfaces between assembled elements. Figure 3.2.2.2-1 shows the conceptual deployment of a habitable element for the Antarctic polar plateau analog. The concept involves preintegration of the element at its manufacturing site, transport in a stowed configuration, and emplacement at the analog mission site. External appendages and interior systems are deployed during emplacement, and the element is connected to the analog power source. It is then activated and verified operational by support personnel prior to the initiation of the first crewed mission. Surface transport of the habitat element is provided by a support vehicle and facilitated by skids mounted to the habitat. Berthing of habitat elements is accomplished by rigging them to pull the new element together with those already emplaced. After they are pulled together, their crew passageways and utility interfaces are connected to complete the berthing process. An expected opportunity for systems testing, based on reference 24, is to perform an operational verification of robotic construction techniques for a preintegrated habitat element. Associated issues to be studied are the effectiveness of telerobotics for analog construction and support personnel safety during construction operations. ** 3.2.2.3 Maintenance ** As defined here, maintenance includes the following functions: * preventive servicing of analog systems and equipment * diagnosis of systems faults * repair and replacement of systems components * restoration of systems operations. The analog habitation systems will be used for NASA and NSF research purposes to support both the SEI and other programs. It is assumed that this support will extend over an indefinite period, and that the analog systems will be maintained in-situ to keep them fully operational as a long-term science facility. External systems and equipment will be exposed to the polar plateau environment, resulting in weathering and the need for maintenance. Drifting snow can cover and damage a long-term habitat; therefore, it has been suggested that elevating it on legs and lifting or moving the habitat periodically is an approach to avoiding damage from snow drifts (reference 19). Internal systems and equipment will degrade over time and will be affected by the presence of human crews. Crew operations will result in use of the systems and the need for systems maintenance. Critical analog habitation system functions must be maintainable on-site by the analog crewmembers to ensure crew safety and health. All analog systems should be maintainable to promote crew productivity and mission success. Preliminary requirements for habitat maintainability are: * Preventive servicing and maintenance shall be performed for critical analog systems functions. Analog systems functions which are necessary for crew safety and health shall be restorable after failure by on-site systems maintenance by the analog crew, without detriment to crew safety or health. A design goal is: * All analog systems should be maintainable by the analog crew using methods which minimize impacts to crew productivity and which increase the probability of mission success. ** 3.2.2.4 Logistics ** Logistics, as defined here, includes the following functions: * Crew consumables resupply from origination points to the analog habitat * Habitat consumables resupply from origination points to the analog habitat * Habitat components resupply from origination points to the analog habitat * Trash removal to approved disposal sites. After occupancy of the habitat has begun, periodic resupply of consumables and equipment will be required to enable long-term analog operations. Waste materials must be removed from the analog site to maintain the qualities of the site environment. Consumables to be resupplied include human consumables such as food, clothing, work supplies, and possibly air and water. For reference, the cost of diesel fuel supplied to the South Pole Station in 1990 was estimated at $3/liter ($12/ gallon) in reference 19. Equipment to be resupplied includes spare and replacement components for analog systems and science experiments. Stowage and some level of environmental control must be provided for the consumables and equipment both during transport and at the analog site. Trash or other waste materials must be packaged, stored, and transported away from the analog site for reprocessing or disposal. Historically, trash disposal has included sealing in fuel drums (reference 21) and landfilling. Preliminary requirements are: * The logistics system shall provide the capability to transfer equipment and consumables between their points of origin and the analog site. The logistics system shall provide environmental conditioning and control during the transfer of equipment and consumables. The logistics system shall provide the capability to transport trash and other waste materials from the analog site to approved disposal sites. Design goals include: * The logistics system should minimize the mass and volume to be transported in order to reduce the frequency of resupply flights. To provide the functions required of the logistics system, a logistics carrier concept is defined. The conceptual logistics carrier is of a similar design to other habitable elements in its level of preintegration and its transportability. Interior racks are used to carry consumables and equipment during the delivery phase and are used to store stabilized trash, scientific samples, and outgoing equipment during the return phase. Logistics support subsystems will require specialized thermal control such as refrigerator/freezer racks, and the Antarctic environment could be used as a source of cooling for these units. The logistics carrier is refurbished at the logistics origination site and is reused in the delivery phase of later logistics flights. Some logistics carriers may be retained at the analog site and outfitted to expand the habitable facility. ** 3.2.2.5 Habitability ** The defined analog mission, several years on the polar plateau of Antarctica, involves physical isolation, a high degree of confinement, and a hazardous external environment. The conditions of this mission force an emphasis on meeting the crewmembers' needs in the analog habitat. The analog habitation systems must provide acceptable living conditions for the crew and thereby enable the human physiology, behavior, and performance research which forms a major part of the basis for the defined analog mission. Key aspects of long-term habitability include protection from environmental conditions, the capability for crewmember privacy, interior space for crew movement, visual and aural environments which enhance crew productivity, and methods for cooperative action among individuals and subgroups. Historically, more recent Antarctic stations have better habitability than earlier outposts. Permanent structures and buildings have been built, providing long-term habitability which expeditionary tents and temporary huts could not support. Preliminary requirements are: * The analog habitat shall enable long-term crew safety, health, and productivity Analog habitat habitability provisions shall include protection from external environmental conditions, interior free space for crew movement, the capability for crewmember privacy, visual and aural environments which meet NASA standards, and means for cooperative action among crewmembers and with remote personnel. Design goals include: * Analog habitability should resemble SEI planetary mission systems as much as practical without undue impacts to analog program cost or schedule. ** 3.2.2.6 Health Care ** Health care is defined here as including the following functions: * Medical care * Health monitoring and countermeasures * Environmental / life support monitoring and countermeasures. The health care subsystem for the polar plateau analog is designed to control the medical safety risks to analog crewmembers. The degree of and extent of health care capabilities will be determined based on a crew safety risk management analysis. The health care subsystem includes both information aspects and systems aspects. Information aspects include communication among analog crewmembers as well as communication between crewmembers and remote medical specialists which will be needed to supplement the knowledge and skills of analog crewmember physicians. Medical evacuation of ill or injured crewmembers will also be dependent on communication with remote evacuation personnel. Systems aspects of health care include the hardware, software, and supplies provided at the analog habitat to support ongoing preventive health care, diagnosis, and medical and dental treatment. Preliminary requirements are: * Crew medical health and safety shall be ensured to a probability of TBD by the provision of both on-site preventive and medical care systems and off-site capabilities including medical consultation and evacuation. The health care subsystem, in conjunction with other habitation functions shall maintain analog crew health during the analog mission. Design goals include: * Health care subsystem mass, volume, and resupply requirements should be minimized. Potential technologies to be utilized in an analog habitat health care system, based on reference 25, include: * physiologic monitors * clinical chemistry * diagnostic imaging * medical informatics * telemedicine * blood and blood component replacement * exercise countermeasures * chronobiology and work schedule planning and adaptation * environmental monitors and informatics. Candidate implementation concepts for the analog health care system include: * crew surgeon * health advisors and specialty consultants * facilities, equipment, informatics, and communications * medical transport and resupply logistics * medical work volume * periodic health checks * health care protocols and procedures * automatic acquisition and entry of health monitor data * periodic check of life support/environmental variables * clinical medical procedures and techniques * crew surgeon use of equipment, supplies, informatics, telemedicine systems * safe haven protocols. Opportunities for research and testing utilizing the analog health care system include: * countermeasures testing and assessment * countermeasures adaptation (over the mission duration) * health effects of confinement and isolation. Potential terrestrial benefits of analog health care system implementation include: * telemedicine communication links and operational demonstrations * equipment miniaturization * subsystem prototypes. Issues and trades specific to the analog health care system include: * requirements for dedicated medical care and exercise work volumes * interdependence of health care systems * interdependence of environmental/life support monitoring and life support * system. ** 3.2.2.7 Crew Accommodations ** Crew accommodations include a broad range of subsystems: * crew clothing * food management * personal hygiene * crew quarters * housekeeping * trash management * interior maintenance * inventory management * stowage * off-duty equipment * workstations * safe haven accommodations. The approach taken to crew accommodations is oriented more toward evaluating operational and human performance issues than the development and testing of flight-type systems. Preliminary requirements for crew accommodations subsystems include: * Equipment shall be designed with a TBD lifetime and shall be maintainable on site Consumables shall be designed with a TBD shelf-life. Packaging and storage facilities shall accommodate the shelf-life requirements for consumables. Design goals include: * Crew accommodations should minimize power, mass, and volume Crew accommodations should maximize crew productivity. Food management as defined here includes: * packaging * preservation * storage * processing * preparation * disposal of food wastes. Food will be both physiologically and psychologically important to isolated, confined analog crewmembers. Experience from NSF Antarctic operations shows that highly palatable food is necessary to maintain crew morale and productivity. Historically, Antarctic food supplies have improved from pemmican, during early exploration, to near the level of variety and quality typical of U. S. food (reference 21). Extra calories may be needed during periods of heavy physical effort and/or exposure to cold. Antarctic explorers travelling overland on skis have used 5100 calories per person-day, with premission predictions of 8000 calories per person-day (reference 26). Analog crewmembers are not expected to consume as many calories when simulating an SEI mission, based on anticipated lower metabolic work loads and less exposure to cold. The food management subsystem must provide nutritionally balanced, palatable foods for the analog crew for the length of their mission. Food packaging, preservation, and storage must ensure a reliable and safe food supply. Food processing, preparation, and disposal of wastes must facilitate crew operations and minimize the amount of crew time necessary for meal preparation and cleanup. Preliminary food management requirements are: * The food system shall provide satisfying meals to crewmembers which are nutritional, palatable, and high quality. The food system shall be designed with a TBD shelf-life requirement. Food packaging and storage facilities shall accommodate the shelf-life requirements for the food system. Food management design goals include: * The food systems should facilitate flexibility in the type and sequencing of food items and portion sizes to accommodate crew preferences. The food management concept, based on references 27- 29, includes both prepared and bulk foods delivered to the analog by the logistics system. New food preservation, on-site preparation, and cooking technologies may be useful to minimize crew time requirements for meal preparation. In-situ production of food is not anticipated in this concept, but could easily be incorporated if the in-situ produced foods are vegetables which require minimal harvesting and processing overhead prior to use. Trash management as defined here includes: * solid and liquid trash collection * trash separation * trash compaction * trash stabilization * trash storage and disposal. The trash management subsystem implements collection, processing, storage, and disposal of all inorganic wastes produced in the crew habitat. This includes trash, expended equipment components, scrap materials, hazardous medical wastes, and laboratory science wastes. Trash will be removed from the analog site by the logistics and transportation systems. References 30 and 31 describe some of the environmental issues surrounding current waste management techniques at Antarctic stations. Sewage, solid wastes, and hazardous chemicals are examples of waste streams which must be managed. The NSF in 1988 announced plans to end open burning of solid wastes at its stations (reference 30). USAP task T-322, Waste Minimization, Treatment, and Disposal Program for McMurdo Station, was planned in 1990 to assess waste generation operations and identify waste minimization opportunities (reference 22). Preliminary trash management requirements are: * The trash management subsystem shall provide collection, separation, compaction, processing, storage, and disposal of all analog habitat trash. Trash shall be removed from the analog site via the logistics and transportation systems, and shall be disposed of in accordance with applicable treaties and policies. Trash management design goals include: * The trash management subsystem should minimize its crew operations time requirements. The trash management subsystem should minimize its mass, volume, and power requirements. The trash management subsystem should minimize negative impacts of habitat wastes on the Antarctic environment. The personal hygiene subsystem as defined here includes the following functions: * oral wash * hand wash * body wash * shaving, hair cutting, and grooming. Personal hygiene will provide the capability for analog crewmember body cleansing and grooming. The personal hygiene subsystem must be designed to its allocated resources, including water, power, volume, and mass. The subsystem components must be maintainable by the crew over the duration of the mission. The personal hygiene subsystem must accommodate the analog crew size without imposing an operational burden such as excessive crew time. Preliminary personal hygiene requirements are: * The personal hygiene subsystem shall provide the capability for all crew body cleansing and grooming activities. The personal hygiene subsystem waste water streams shall be compatible with the life support subsystem's waste processing capabilities. Personal hygiene and grooming supplies shall have shelf lives of TBD length. Personal hygiene and grooming equipment and supplies shall accommodate male and female crewmembers. Personal hygiene design goals include: * The personal hygiene subsystem should allow crewmembers to maintain cleanliness and grooming at the norm for U. S. professional workers. Cleansing and grooming supplies should be nonallergenic. Analog crew clothing is defined here to include the following: Habitat interior operations clothes Linens Habitat exterior operations suits Clothing maintenance. Crew clothing must be durable, comfortable, washable, low-linting, hydrophilic, and flame-resistant in the habitat atmosphere. It should last the entire mission length under repeated laundering. Interior operations clothes should keep crewmembers comfortable in a 70 to 80 degree F habitat. Exterior operations clothes should keep active or immobile crewmembers comfortable in a TBD (-90) degrees C environment with wind speed of TBD (25) kilometers per hour. Historically, Antarctic clothing has been bulky and heavy, up to 18 kg (40 lbs) for early explorers. Current clothing is lighter, layered, and covers the entire body except for parts of the face. Thermally insulated boots are especially critical (reference 21). Preliminary crew clothing requirements are: * Crew clothes and linens shall be provided for all crewmembers. Clothing cleaning and maintenance functions shall be provided. Clothing shall remain usable for the length of the mission. Interior operations clothes shall be designed for the range of habitat atmospheric conditions. Exterior operations clothes shall be designed to maintain the skin temperatures of an immobile or active crewmember within their normal ranges with an environmental temperature of TBD and wind speed of TBD. Crew clothing design goals include: * Clothing should be comfortable for daily wearing. Clothing should resemble that expected for space missions. Clothing fibers and construction should provide flame resistance without requiring special treatment during the mission. Potential technologies to be utilized by the analog crew accommodations system include: * trash management stabilization techniques and processing systems * automated inventory management systems * food preservation, preparation, and cooking technologies * workstation crew interface technologies such as voice control * reusable or recyclable paper products * caution and warning techniques * fault detection, isolation, recovery, and maintenance techniques * decontamination techniques * automatic nutrition monitoring system and menu planning * preventive maintenance techniques * collection, storage, and disposal technologies for hazardous materials. Candidate concepts for implementation of the analog crew accommodations system include: * trash processing system which reduces volume and stabilizes the trash to prevent bacterial growth * radio frequency tagging system for automated inventory management and location of loose equipment items * automated logistics tracking of consumables and trash * advanced food systems. Opportunities for research and testing associated with the analog crew accommodation system include: * determination of effects of isolation, confinement, and/or autonomous operation on crew effectivity and efficiency * determination of safe haven needs and effects on crew * operational evaluation of automated inventory management * evaluation of crewmember off-duty activities * evaluation of crew acceptance of advanced food systems * life testing of equipment and consumable articles * evaluation of consumables use rates and waste generation rates * evaluation of crew menu fatigue, food preferences, and meal preparation * evaluation of interior outfitting effects on crew performance * evaluation of housekeeping system. Potential terrestrial benefits associated with implementation of the analog crew accommodations system include: * inventory management automation * automation of malfunction tracking systems * improved food preservation and preparation techniques. Issues and trades specific to the analog crew accommodations system include: * levels at which malfunctions should be detected, tracked, and brought to crewmembers' attention * level of crew and systems autonomy versus control and intervention from mission control * selection of terrestrial off-the-shelf crew accommodations equipment versus development of new designs * menu fatigue issues (e.g. variety, menu cycle, menu planning) * nutritional requirements * effects of various food processing methods on human performance * development of a prototype food system for a 3 year mission * development of new food technologies which meet the psychological requirements and shelf-life requirement of TBD years * - evaluation of food packages and storage facilities * personal hygiene impact on human performance * recreational impact on human performance * housekeeping impact on human performance * clothing materials and design * interior outfitting in relation to human performance issues. ** 3.2.2.8 Communications ** The communications subsystem is defined here to include the following functions: * wireless data transfer between the analog and a mission control center * wireless voice communications between the analog and mission control * wireless voice communications among analog crewmembers * wireless links between the analog habitat and local surface vehicles * wireless links between the analog habitat and local aircraft * wireless video links * three dimensional location of analog crew and/or vehicles * reception of time standard signals * antenna deployment and pointing * time delay simulation. The communications subsystem will provide the analog crew with wireless information exchange between the analog site and a remote mission control facility. It will also provide wireless information exchange among crewmembers inside and outside the habitat. Hardwire links will be considered as part of the information management subsystem. Current remote communications in Antarctica includes high frequency radio and satellite systems for voice, teletype, and electronic mail. Many Antarctic station have commercial satellite services to enable transmission of data and telephone-quality voice. The South Pole Satellite Data Link enables data transmission and official communications from the South Pole Station to McMurdo Station and the Continental United States (reference 18). Antarctic communications by radio frequency is sometimes difficult or impossible at certain wavelengths due to auroral "blackouts" or static electricity caused by snow blowing across a radio antenna (reference 21). The Global Positioning System satellite network provides position and time signals for users on the Earth's surface. Other existing satellites, including polar orbiting and geostationary, may be useful in providing some remote communications capability for a polar plateau analog. Geostationary satellites appear very near the horizon from the 82 degree south latitude used for the reference mission in this document; therefore, their usefulness may be marginal. It may be desirable to utilize a polar orbiting system to provide continuous and reliable contact with the mission control site and with emergency evacuation personnel at other Antarctic stations. Reference 32 describes the conceptual polar orbiting Iridium communications system which is currently being studied. If deployed in the mid-1990's, this system would provide continuous global coverage for the transmission of digital voice, low rate data, and facsimile information. Video capability between the polar plateau and other sites is not provided by low data rate systems such as Iridium. Specialized satellite links for video would be required. In 1990-1991, the Antarctic Communications Survey, USAP task T-323 was scheduled to perform a comprehensive survey of communications resources and needs for the USAP stations and field research. Planning for an INTELSAT satellite ground station was also scheduled under this task (reference 22). Preliminary requirements for the analog communications subsystem are: * The communication subsystem shall provide the following functional capabilities: o Wireless links between the analog and remote sites, including a mission control facility Wireless links between analog crewmembers inside and outside the habitat Time signal acquisition Position signal acquisition Emergency backup link to evacuation team Antenna deployment and positioning Voice, data, and video transmission from the analog to remote sites Voice, data, and video reception from remote sites The wireless links to remote sites shall be compatible with TBD satellites The communication subsystem shall interface with the information management subsystem to transmit analog information and to receive outside information Design goals include: * The communication links should have maximum availability. ** 3.2.2.9 Thermal Control ** The thermal control subsystem, as defined here, includes the following functions: * heat acquisition at points of heat production * heat transport to points of heat loss * supplemental heat generation * heat rejection * energy storage * temperature control. The analog habitat occupants, systems, and equipment must be protected from temperature extremes. The crew compartment will be maintained at approximately TBD-TBD degrees C (TBD-TBD degrees F) for crew health and comfort. Habitat systems have various temperature requirements, but in general will be maintained above the interior dewpoint temperature to prevent undesirable condensation of habitat atmospheric humidity. These systems will be maintained below their maximum operating temperatures by passive or by active cooling, as necessary. The thermal control subsystem must be designed to remove waste heat from areas of high heat generation and to redistribute it to areas of lower temperature where heat loss to the environment occurs. Thermal "shorts", points of high heat loss rate, are to be avoided to prevent condensation and/or freezing of habitat internal atmospheric humidity (reference 33). A low rate of heat loss per unit of habitat external surface area is necessary to maintain the habitat interior within the required temperature range and to prevent melting of snow on the outside of the habitat. The buildup of ice on the habitat exterior from refreezing of melted snow can cause excessive weight on the structure (reference 34). It is also important that the habitat not cause melting of the snow surface beneath it in order to keep it stable; therefore, the surface supports of the habitat element must be designed to reduce their potential thermal shorting effect. It is desirable that the total habitat heat loss rate be no greater than the nominal rate of heat generation by personnel and equipment inside the habitat, to reduce the need for supplemental heating of the habitat interior. Off- nominal situations, such as a reduction of habitat power, will reduce the interior heat generation rate to the point that supplemental heating may be required to maintain the habitat temperature within the acceptable range. Preliminary requirements for the thermal control subsystem are: * The habitat thermal control subsystem shall maintain all habitat systems and equipment within their nominal operating temperature ranges. The internal habitable atmosphere shall be maintained within the range of TBD- TBD degrees C (TBD-TBD degrees F), and the dewpoint shall be maintained within the range of TBD-TBD degrees C (TBD-TBD degrees F) under nominal operational conditions. (This requirement impacts both the thermal control subsystem and the life support subsystem.) A single failure of the thermal control subsystem shall not cause habitat temperatures to exceed their nominal ranges. A dual failure of the thermal control subsystem shall not cause permanent damage to habitat systems or crew. Supplemental heat generation capability shall be provided for habitat contingencies which reduce the normal internal heat generation rate below that necessary to maintain the habitat temperature above TBD degrees C. Design goals include: * The habitat thermal control subsystem should minimize the need for supplemental heating of the habitat interior. The habitat thermal control subsystem should minimize the need for active heat rejection devices separate from the habitat, instead making use of the natural environment heat sink to remove excess heat at controlled rates from the habitat. ** 3.2.2.10 Life Support ** The life support subsystem as defined here includes the following functions: atmospheric carbon dioxide and trace contaminant control atmospheric temperature and humidity control atmospheric pressure and composition control potable and hygiene water management organic waste management food production. The life support subsystem must maintain adequate supplies of respirable air and potable and hygiene quality water for the analog crew. It may also provide some supplement to the crew food supply by on-site food production. The life support subsystem removes contaminants from the habitat air and water streams. It processes organic wastes in order to recover usable elements and compounds and to dispose of unusable constituents. Life support consumables of air and water are readily available from the analog mission environment. At the high altitudes of the Antarctic polar plateau, oxygen enrichment and/or pressurization of the ambient atmosphere may be necessary for human habitation to prevent hypoxia. Preliminary requirements are: * The internal habitable atmosphere shall be maintained within the range of TBD- TBD degrees C (TBD-TBD degrees F), and the dewpoint shall be maintained within the range of TBD-TBD degrees C (TBD-TBD degrees F) under nominal operational conditions. (This requirement impacts both the thermal control subsystem and the life support subsystem.) The carbon dioxide level in the habitable atmosphere shall be maintained within the range of TBD-TBD mmHg under nominal operating conditions, and within the range of TBD-TBD mmHg under contingency conditions. The habitat atmosphere shall meet applicable NASA standards for contaminant levels. The partial pressure of oxygen in the habitat atmosphere shall be maintained within the range of TBD-TBD kPa (TBD-TBD psia). The concentration of oxygen in the habitat atmosphere shall be maintained within the range of TBD-TBD percent. The potable and hygiene water supplies shall meet applicable NASA standards for contaminant levels. Food produced by the life support subsystem shall meet applicable NASA standards for contaminant levels. Design goals include: * The life support subsystem should minimize mass, volume, power, and crew time requirements. The humidity control function should minimize the amount of heat rejected to the environment in order to reduce habitat overall heat loss. ** 3.2.2.11 Electrical Power ** The electrical power subsystem as defined here includes the following functions: * power transmission * power conditioning * power switching * energy storage and management. The electrical power subsystem receives power generated by a power system external to the habitat and distributes it to end use points within the habitat. It provides temporary contingency backup power to critical habitat functions when power from the external power system is not available. Historically, diesel generators and a nuclear power plant have been used in the Antarctic as sources of electrical power (reference 21). Limited use has been made of solar and wind power. Preliminary requirements on the electrical power subsystem are: * The electrical power subsystem shall interface to the analog power generation system for receipt of power. It shall transmit, distribute, switch, control, invert, convert, connect, and store electrical power and energy in support of the habitat systems and crew. Design goals are: * The electrical power subsystem should be automated to the point that normal operations do not require crew involvement and that contingencies may be diagnosed and corrected with crew supervision. The electrical power subsystem should minimize parasitic power losses in transmission, distribution, and control. ** 3.2.2.12 Information Management ** The information management subsystem as defined here includes the following functions: * data collection * data processing * data storage * data display * data distribution * crew support in specific applications. The analog habitat must provide the degree of information management which supports the scientific objectives of the mission as well as crew health, safety, and productivity. The information management subsystem extends from the points where raw data is created to the points of ultimate use of information. Applications for information management may include systems control and monitoring, fault management and recovery, planning and scheduling, and support to crew activities such as science experimentation, scheduling, data base utilization, word processing, mathematical analysis, programming, etc. Preliminary requirements are: * The information management subsystem shall support all analog subsystems and analog crew functions in the collection, processing, storage, interchange, display, and use of data. Data types to be managed include instrumentation readings, voice, facsimile, and video. The information management subsystem shall interface with the communications subsystem for wireless transmission of data. Design goals include: * The information management system should use terrestrial state of the art, non- flight, components and software applications as much as possible without undue impacts to cost or schedule. All continuous waveform analog data should be converted to digital form for handling by the information management subsystem. ** 3.2.2.13 Structural/Mechanical Functions ** The structural/mechanical subsystem as defined here includes the following functions: * structural enclosure of the habitat * structural support of habitat systems and equipment * containment of habitat internal atmosphere * exclusion of environmental contaminants * resistance to environmental degradation of materials * connection of habitable elements * leveling of habitable elements * accommodation of seismic event motions and loads * stabilization of habitable elements on the underlying surface/subsurface * crew and materials transfer into and out of the habitable elements * deployment and stabilization of habitat exterior appendages * support of utility interfaces. The analog habitat structural/mechanical subsystem must provide a degree of protection from the external environment and must withstand the structural loads imposed on the habitat and its contents by environmental forces and by habitat construction and operations. For the polar plateau site, the external atmospheric pressure may fall to approximately 55 kPa (8 psia) during the winter season. The habitat internal atmosphere must be maintained within the physiologically acceptable limits for crew health and productivity. The function of maintaining a difference in atmospheric pressure between external and internal environments is allocated to the habitat structure. Also allocated to the structure is the function of reduction of air exchange between the external and internal environments. This air exchange is normally present as leakage from the higher pressure interior to the lower pressure exterior. The structural system must support habitat systems and contents during transport, construction, and operations. The required support includes resisting gravitational, inertial, wind, and snow loads. Historically, Antarctic habitat structures have been deployable, constructible, or preintegrated. These have been placed both above and below the surface. The U. S. Plateau Station living units were basically modular insulated plywood boxes with aluminum exterior coverings and could be joined together during surface emplacement, after unloading from an LC-130 transport (reference 21). Preliminary requirements are: * The habitat structural subsystem shall provide support for all habitat components during buildup, test and checkout, transport, emplacement, and operations. The habitat structural subsystem shall provide the capability for atmospheric pressure differential between the habitat interior and the environment of up to TBD kPa (TBD psia) during transport, emplacement, and operations. The structural subsystem shall provide environmental protection for habitat interior subsystems and equipment. The structural subsystem shall provide for leveling of the emplaced habitat. The structural subsystem shall enable loading and unloading of the habitat onto surface ships and aircraft, transport of the habitat, offloading at the emplacement site, surface transport, and emplacement. The structural subsystem shall accommodate seismic events with TBD characteristics. The structural subsystem shall provide for stabilization of habitable elements on the local surface. The structural subsystem shall provide the function of anchoring and/or attachment of habitat elements to the underlying ground surface if this is determined to be necessary to meet any other requirement. The structural subsystem shall provide for deployment of habitat external appendages required for support of habitat subsystem hardware. The structural subsystem shall provide for the berthing/docking/ connection of habitat elements with each other. The structural subsystem shall provide for movement of crewmembers and TBD size equipment into and out of any habitat element. Design goals include: * The habitat structural subsystem should be lightweight to maximize weight allocations for other habitat subsystems. The structural subsystem should be stiff enough to minimize undesirable elastic deformation and/or vibration of the habitat during all mission phases. Based on reference 35, potentially useful technologies include: * Prefabrication and preintegration of structures * In-flight extraction from aircraft * Severe environment protection materials * Standard interfaces * Air locks * Air and water sealing methods. Candidate implementation concepts include: * Preintegrated, self-contained, self-supporting modules with standard interfaces which connect them * Air lift, air extraction, and telerobotic construction on the site. Research and test opportunities associated with the analog habitat structural/ mechanical subsystem include: * Remote site preparation operational simulation * Remote emplacement and construction operational simulation. Potential terrestrial benefits related to the analog habitat structural/ mechanical subsystems include: * Remotely operated construction equipment * Preintegrated, transportable habitats for extreme terrestrial environments. Issues and trades specific to this subsystem include: * Applicability of analog structural/mechanical design to space flight hardware * Differences between Antarctic polar plateau environment and Lunar/Mars environments * Development of remotely operated construction equipment. Research is required into low temperature effects on lubricants, polymers, and composite materials, including bond strength of dissimilar materials (reference 4). A habitat structural concept is shown in Figure 3.2.2.13-1 which is compatible with the transport and construction concepts described in sections 3.2.2.1 and 3.2.2.2. The habitat surface support system consists of pads and telescoping leveling legs attached to the ends of the habitat element. During transport the surface supports are stowed to fit the transport envelope. They are extended during emplacement to raise the element off the surface and to level it. The habitat outer shell, based on reference 36, is a skinned, self-inflating polymeric foam layer which is collapsed for transport by removing air from its interior. For shell deployment, the interior of the foam is exposed to atmospheric pressure. This causes it to inflate to its original shape, producing an elliptical foam shell the length of the habitat element. This shell provides thermal insulation and atmosphere containment within the habitat. A low pressure differential may be possible across this shell, if necessary. The load-bearing structure is a rigid, box-shaped framework of square cross- section tubing members. Deployable structural racks are stowed inside this framework for transport, then are deployed during element emplacement after the outer shell is inflated. These racks support the habitat interior subsystems and equipment. The volume left empty when the racks are deployed is utilized as habitable free volume during analog mission operations. ** 3.2.2.14 Support to Physical Sciences ** Physical science is one primary objective of the analog mission described in section 3.2, and it is anticipated that valuable physical science can be performed as part of the analog mission, in order to simulate Lunar and Mars planet surface outpost operations. The analog habitat provides interior lab space and equipment which enables a variety of physical science procedures. Included may be meteorite analysis, ice core analysis, and collection and storage of data from exterior science instruments. Preliminary requirements are: * The physical science support subsystem shall enable laboratory experimentation in TBD scientific disciplines. Functions of the physical science support subsystem shall include microscopy, sample storage and curation, data storage and processing, and TBD additional functions (chromatography, spectroscopy, chemical analysis, etc.). Design goals include: * The physical science support subsystem should be flexible to allow changes in the types of experiments and disciplines being supported. ** 3.2.2.15 Support to Life Sciences ** Life science research is one primary objective of the analog mission defined in section 3.2, and it is anticipated that valuable information can be generated about human responses to long-term isolation and confinement in a harsh environment with an element of risk. Human, animal, and plant physiology, human psychology, and human performance are scientific disciplines which should be supported in the analog habitat. Preliminary requirements for the life sciences support subsystem are: * The life science support subsystem shall enable laboratory experimentation in TBD scientific disciplines (physiology, psychology, human performance). Functions of the life science support subsystem shall include data collection and processing, sample collection and storage, experimental animal holding, and plant sample analysis. Design goals include: * The life science support subsystem should be flexible to allow changes in the types of experiments and disciplines being supported. Opportunities for research into human performance include the following areas: * Crew selection * Crew skill mix and cross-training * Crew operations and productivity * Interpersonal conflict resolution * Small group dynamics * Crew organizational structure * Human-machine interfaces * Habitability * Health and medical care. ** 3.2.2.16 Support to Flight Systems Development ** Flight systems development is one primary objective of the analog mission described in section 3.2, and it is anticipated that valuable information can be generated on the usefulness and the performance of some flight-like systems. Those systems which include components or configurations representative of flight systems may generate performance data which can be applied to flight systems development, including information on lifetimes, performance trends, and maintenance. Other systems, which do not closely represent flight systems, may nevertheless provide general operational data which can be applied to flight systems development, if it is collected in a systematic way. Crew comments on the design and usefulness of various pieces of equipment and their functional aspects may provide insight into the needs of Lunar and Mars mission crews. Preliminary requirements are: * Analog systems data which is useful in supporting development of SEI flight systems shall be collected, stored, and distributed for application to space flight systems design and manufacturing. Design goals include: * Analog systems should be designed and configured to provide data applicable to the development of flight systems when possible. Some factors of importance in systems testing are: * environments * crew activities * length of testing * sustaining engineering support * transportation and logistics * data collection and storage. Potential testing to be performed includes: * systems performance * systems support to crew * component life testing * systems maintenance. Potential benefits to the SEI from this testing include: * validation of systems performance and operating models * development of guidelines, standards, and program requirements * demonstration of element-level performance under conditions similar to planetary exploration * verification of prototype habitat systems support to humans. ** 3.2.2.17 Support to Mission Operations Development ** Analog mission operations will provide data useful in the planning and design of SEI space flight mission operations. Space systems operations and space crew activities may be simulated during analog missions, and the data generated during these analog missions should be collected for evaluation by SEI mission planners. Preliminary requirements for support of mission operations development are: * Analog systems data which is useful in supporting development of SEI mission operations shall be collected, stored, and distributed for application to mission planning and crew procedure development. Design goals include: * Analog operations should be designed to provide data applicable to the development of SEI flight operations when possible. The following general comparisons of analog operations and flight operations may be made: * personal care: very similar if crew accommodations equipment is flight- like * resupply logistics: similarity is dependent on logistics carrier functional and design similarity to flight * habitat maintenance: similarity is dependent on habitat functional and design similarity to flight * command, control, and communications: very similar if systems and mission operations are flight-like (time delay must be instituted artificially to simulate long distance communications to Earth) * external surface operations: similarity to EVA is dependent on suits worn and on their pressurization * surface transportation: similarity is dependent on vehicle functional and design similarity to flight and on terrain (dry valley more similar than high plateau) * science: laboratory life science may be very similar, surface science more similar for astronomy than for geology * telerobotics: similar depending on systems/functional environment. *** 3.2.3 Future Systems Analysis *** Refinement of the preliminary requirements and concepts presented in this report is necessary to develop a practical analog program. There are also many trades which can be made to aid in the implementation of these requirements. The following subsections discuss some analyses which will be useful in defining the analog mission and analog habitation systems. ** 3.2.3.1 Application to Planet Surface or Space Transportation Missions ** * Problem: o terrestrial analogs may be useful for both planet surface and space transportation-related studies * Decision Needed: o relative priority to be placed on simulating planet surface conditions and space transportation conditions * Underlying Issues: o the degree to which terrestrial analogs can simulate either planet surface or space transportation conditions o human behavioral effects of analogs which do not completely simulate the target mission conditions o divergent requirements for a planet surface or space transportation analog * Assumptions: o planet surface analog requirements may be significantly different from space transportation analog requirements o terrestrial surface analogs, by their nature, may more closely simulate planet surfaces than they simulate space transportation conditions * Study Methodology: o develop strawman planet surface and space transportation analog requirements and compare them o if significant differences are found, develop the areas of difference to the point of conceptual terrestrial analog implementations o evaluate the differences in costs of planet surface-only, space transportation-only, and combined planet surface/space transportation analogs o evaluate potential schedule differences * Parameters to be Traded: o cost o schedule o environmental factors * Desired Products: o an understanding of the sensitivity of analog cost/schedule to its applicability to planet surface and space transportation missions ** 3.2.3.2 Crew Size and Stay Time ** * Problem: o select crew size(s) and stay times which satisfy human research goals and which can be reasonably accommodated in an analog * Decision Needed: o number of crew for each analog mission and number of missions to reach total number of human test subjects required * Underlying Issues: o biobehavioral research requires a statistically significant population of test subjects to reach scientific conclusions o the number of crew and their stay time drive both analog initial emplaced mass and logistics resupply mass o specialized skills in a variety of areas must be included in a relatively small crew o Lunar/Mars missions may vary from a few weeks to a few years in length * Assumptions: o analog is required for human behavioral research o there exists a need date for human behavior data to support crew selection and/or training for Lunar/Mars missions o transportation to the analog site is an analog program cost driver * Study Methodology: o establish biobehavioral research needs o collect information on transportation to potential analog sites o develop estimates of analog mass versus crew size o develop alternate crew sizes and numbers of missions which meet research requirements o generate analog transportation mass versus time estimates for each alternative * Parameters to be Traded: o crew size and skill mix o stay time o initial and resupply mass o habitat living conditions o crew accommodations and life support implementations * Desired Products: o documented human research needs o understanding of the sensitivities of transportation mass to crew size and stay time ** 3.2.3.3 Habitat Emplacement and Construction ** * Problem: o analog habitable elements, due to transportation constraints, will require some degree of construction at the site * Decision Needed: o a planning baseline and program goal for the level of habitat preintegration versus on-site habitat construction * Underlying Issues: o the degree of construction needed for planet surface flight habitats o environment and site constraints for terrestrial analog design and construction methods o transportation aircraft and offloading methods o the degree to which the analog habitat is similar to flight habitats o crew involvement and robotic involvement in construction * Assumptions: o there are advantages to preintegration of habitat elements, e.g. emplacement time and reliability o transportation methods do not allow one-time emplacement of the entire analog, completely preintegrated * Study Methodology: o establish analog program goals for simulation of planet surface habitat emplacement o define environmental constraints o define transportation constraints o define habitat internal atmospheric pressure and composition differences from environment o develop alternative habitat design concepts which meet constraints and which trade cost and schedule o describe the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives * Parameters to be Traded: o degree of flight-like habitat design o cost o transportation mode(s) o emplacement schedule * Desired Products: o an understanding of the sensitivity of habitat design to the analog environment and to transportation methods ** 3.2.3.4 Living Conditions ** * Problem: o crew living standards for the analog must be designed to support research objectives and to support crew productivity * Decision Needed: o type of crew living conditions to be used in analog planning and eventually to be developed * Underlying Issues: o the influence of reduced living standards on human behavior o crew health and safety o crew productivity o degree to which living conditions simulate planet surface and/or space transportation missions * Assumptions: o a wide range of living conditions, from tents to space flight-like habitats is possible o analog program goals may be diverse enough to produce different requirements on crew living conditions o analog crewmembers will be accustomed to a United States standard of living prior to their missions * Study Methodology: o establish human research objectives o establish standards for crew health and safety o define relationship of crew productivity to variation of living conditions o generate alternative concepts for analog living conditions o evaluate potential cost, schedule, and performance differences for these alternatives * Parameters to be Traded: o cost o schedule o performance (crew productivity) * Desired Products: o an understanding of the minimum and optimum crew living conditions which support analog program goals ** 3.2.3.5 Life Support Techniques ** * Problem: o human life support in the analog habitat should support crew health and productivity while optimizing mass/volume/power * Decision Needed: o selection of a life support concept * Underlying Issues: o schedule for initial analog operations versus life support technology availability o degree of closure necessary to achieve reasonable resupply costs and rate of waste accumulation o environmental sensitivity of analog sites o NSF needs for upgraded life support o use of ambient air and/or water as life support supplies o degrees of on-site food production and resupply o analog goals (systems testing versus human research) * Assumptions: o life support technologies are available to support open-loop and partially closed-loop alternatives o increased levels of life support closure will be developed in the 1990's o analog habitat living conditions would provide a valid test of life support systems hardware * Study Methodology: o establish strawman analog mission scenarios (crew size, stay time, environments, etc.) o gather information on life support technologies o define alternative life support concepts which support the missions o evaluate the cost, schedule, and performance differences between the alternatives o describe the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative o select a promising alternative and develop a conceptual point design * Parameters to be Traded: o performance (mass, volume, power, environmental protection) o cost o schedule * Desired Products: o analog life support concepts o understanding of trade sensitivities to life support implementation ** 3.2.3.6 Food Management Techniques ** * Problem: o analog food management should support crew health and productivity while optimizing mass/volume/power * Decision Needed: o selection of a food management concept * Underlying Issues: o schedule for initial analog operations versus food management technology availability o environmental sensitivity of analog sites o NSF needs for upgraded food management o use of ambient environment water in food preparation o degrees of on-site food production and food resupply o analog goals (systems testing, human research, etc.) * Assumption